• General College Chemistry
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    Valence Bond Theory

    TheoryAtomOrbitalsBondingValence Bond Theory
    Valence bond theory describes bonding as a consequence of the overlap of two separate atomic orbitals on different atoms that creates a region with one pair of electrons shared between the two atoms. When the orbitals overlap along an axis containing the nuclei, they form a σ bond. When they overlap in a fashion that creates a node along this axis, they form a π bond. Dipole moments can be used to determine partial separations of charges between atoms. We can use hybrid orbitals, which are mathematical combinations of some or all of the valence atomic orbitals, to describe the electron density around covalently bonded atoms. These hybrid orbitals either form sigma (σ) bonds directed toward other atoms of the molecule or contain lone pairs of electrons. We can determine the type of hybridization around a central atom from the geometry of the regions of electron density about it. Two such regions imply sp hybridization; three, sp2 hybridization; four, sp3 hybridization; five, sp3d hybridization; and six, sp3d2 hybridization. Pi (π) bonds are formed from unhybridized atomic orbitals (p or d orbitals). Multiple bonds consist of a σ bond located along the axis between two atoms and one or two π bonds. The σ bonds are usually formed by the overlap of hybridized atomic orbitals, while the π bonds are formed by the side-by-side overlap of unhybridized orbitals. Resonance occurs when there are multiple unhybridized orbitals with the appropriate alignment to overlap, so the placement of π bonds can vary.

    21.1 Valence Bond Theory

    Learning Objectives

    By the end of this section, you will be able to:

    • Describe the formation of covalent bonds in terms of atomic orbital overlap
    • Define and give examples of σ and π bonds

    As we know, a scientific theory is a strongly supported explanation for observed natural laws or large bodies of experimental data. For a theory to be accepted, it must explain experimental data and be able to predict behavior. For example, VSEPR theory has gained widespread acceptance because it predicts three-dimensional molecular shapes that are consistent with experimental data collected for thousands of different molecules. However, VSEPR theory does not provide an explanation of chemical bonding.

    Atomic Orbital Overlap

    There are successful theories that describe the electronic structure of atoms. We can use quantum mechanics to predict the specific regions around an atom where electrons are likely to be located: A spherical shape for an s orbital, a dumbbell shape for a p orbital, and so forth. However, these predictions only describe the orbitals around free atoms. When atoms bond to form molecules, atomic orbitals are not sufficient to describe the regions where electrons will be located in the molecule. A more complete understanding of electron distributions requires a model that can account for the electronic structure of molecules. One popular theory holds that a covalent bond forms when a pair of electrons is shared by two atoms and is simultaneously attracted by the nuclei of both atoms. In the following sections, we will discuss how such bonds are described by valence bond theory and hybridization.

    Valence bond theory describes a covalent bond as the overlap of half-filled atomic orbitals (each containing a single electron) that yield a pair of electrons shared between the two bonded atoms. We say that orbitals on two different atoms overlap when a portion of one orbital and a portion of a second orbital occupy the same region of space. According to valence bond theory, a covalent bond results when two conditions are met: (1) an orbital on one atom overlaps an orbital on a second atom and (2) the single electrons in each orbital combine to form an electron pair. The mutual attraction between this negatively charged electron pair and the two atoms’ positively charged nuclei serves to physically link the two atoms through a force we define as a covalent bond. The strength of a covalent bond depends on the extent of overlap of the orbitals involved. Orbitals that overlap extensively form bonds that are stronger than those that have less overlap.

    The energy of the system depends on how much the orbitals overlap. Figure 21.1 illustrates how the sum of the energies of two hydrogen atoms (the colored curve) changes as they approach each other. When the atoms are far apart there is no overlap, and by convention we set the sum of the energies at zero. As the atoms move together, their orbitals begin to overlap. Each electron begins to feel the attraction of the nucleus in the other atom. In addition, the electrons begin to repel each other, as do the nuclei. While the atoms are still widely separated, the attractions are slightly stronger than the repulsions, and the energy of the system decreases. (A bond begins to form.) As the atoms move closer together, the overlap increases, so the attraction of the nuclei for the electrons continues to increase (as do the repulsions among electrons and between the nuclei). At some specific distance between the atoms, which varies depending on the atoms involved, the energy reaches its lowest (most stable) value. This optimum distance between the two bonded nuclei is the bond distance between the two atoms. The bond is stable because at this point, the attractive and repulsive forces combine to create the lowest possible energy configuration. If the distance between the nuclei were to decrease further, the repulsions between nuclei and the repulsions as electrons are confined in closer proximity to each other would become stronger than the attractive forces. The energy of the system would then rise (making the system destabilized), as shown at the far left of Figure 21.1.

    Figure 21.1

    (a) The interaction of two hydrogen atoms changes as a function of distance. (b) The energy of the system changes as the atoms interact. The lowest (most stable) energy occurs at a distance of 74 pm, which is the bond length observed for the H2 molecule.

    A pair of diagrams are shown and labeled “a” and “b”. Diagram a shows three consecutive images. The first image depicts two separated blurry circles, each labeled with a positive sign and the term “H atom.” The phrase written under them reads, “Sufficiently far apart to have no interaction.” The second image shows the same two circles, but this time they are much closer together and are labeled, “Atoms begin to interact as they move closer together.” The third image shows the two circles overlapping, labeled, “H subscript 2,” and, “Optimum distance to achieve lowest overall energy of system.” Diagram b shows a graph on which the y-axis is labeled “Energy ( J ),” and the x-axis is labeled, “Internuclear distance ( p m ).” The midpoint of the y-axis is labeled as zero. The curve on the graph begins at zero p m and high on the y-axis. The graph slopes downward steeply to a point far below the zero joule line on the y-axis and the lowest point reads “0.74 p m” and “H bonded to H bond length.” It is also labeled “ negative 7.24 times 10 superscript negative 19 J.” The graph then rises again to zero J. The graph is accompanied by the same images from diagram a; the first image correlates to the point in the graph where it crosses the zero point on the y-axis, the third image where the graph is lowest.

    In addition to the distance between two orbitals, the orientation of orbitals also affects their overlap (other than for two s orbitals, which are spherically symmetric). Greater overlap is possible when orbitals are oriented such that they overlap on a direct line between the two nuclei. Figure 21.2 illustrates this for two p orbitals from different atoms; the overlap is greater when the orbitals overlap end to end rather than at an angle.

    Figure 21.2

    (a) The overlap of two p orbitals is greatest when the orbitals are directed end to end. (b) Any other arrangement results in less overlap. The dots indicate the locations of the nuclei.

    Two diagrams are shown. Diagram a contains two molecules whose p orbitals, which are depicted as two balloon-shaped structures that meet together to form a peanut shape, are laid end over end, creating an area of overlap. In diagram b, the same two molecules are shown, but this time, they are laid out in a way so as to form a near-ninety degree angle. In this diagram, the ends of two of these peanut-shaped orbitals do not overlap nearly as much.

    The overlap of two s orbitals (as in H2), the overlap of an s orbital and a p orbital (as in HCl), and the end-to-end overlap of two p orbitals (as in Cl2) all produce sigma bonds (σ bonds), as illustrated in Figure 21.3. A σ bond is a covalent bond in which the electron density is concentrated in the region along the internuclear axis; that is, a line between the nuclei would pass through the center of the overlap region. Single bonds in Lewis structures are described as σ bonds in valence bond theory.

    Figure 21.3

    Sigma (σ) bonds form from the overlap of the following: (a) two s orbitals, (b) an s orbital and a p orbital, and (c) two p orbitals. The dots indicate the locations of the nuclei.

    Three diagrams are shown and labeled “a,” “b,” and “c.” Diagram a shows two spherical orbitals lying side by side and overlapping. Diagram b shows one spherical and one peanut-shaped orbital lying near one another so that the spherical orbital overlaps with one end of the peanut-shaped orbital. Diagram c shows two peanut-shaped orbitals lying end to end so that one end of each orbital overlaps the other.

    A pi bond (π bond) is a type of covalent bond that results from the side-by-side overlap of two p orbitals, as illustrated in Figure 21.4. In a π bond, the regions of orbital overlap lie on opposite sides of the internuclear axis. Along the axis itself, there is a node, that is, a plane with no probability of finding an electron.

    Figure 21.4

    Pi (π) bonds form from the side-by-side overlap of two p orbitals. The dots indicate the location of the nuclei.

    Two peanut-shaped orbitals are shown, lying vertically and parallel with one another. They overlap one another along the top and bottom of the orbital.

    While all single bonds are σ bonds, multiple bonds consist of both σ and π bonds. As the Lewis structures below suggest, O2 contains a double bond, and N2 contains a triple bond. The double bond consists of one σ bond and one π bond, and the triple bond consists of one σ bond and two π bonds. Between any two atoms, the first bond formed will always be a σ bond, but there can only be one σ bond in any one location. In any multiple bond, there will be one σ bond, and the remaining one or two bonds will be π bonds. These bonds are described in more detail later in this chapter.

    A diagram contains three Lewis structures. The left most structure shows an H atom bonded to a C l atom by a single bond. The C l atom has three lone pairs of electrons. The phrase “One sigma bond No pi bonds” is written below the drawing. The center structure shows two O atoms bonded by a double bond. The O atoms each have two lone pairs of electrons. The phrase “One sigma bond One pi bond” is written below the drawing. The right most structure shows two N atoms bonded by a triple bond. Each N atom has a lone pairs of electrons. The phrase “One sigma bond Two pi bonds” is written below the drawing.

    Example 21.1

    Counting σ and π Bonds

    This figure shows a molecule composed of four carbon atoms. There is a double bond between carbons one and two and three and four, while a single bond holds carbon two and three together. Carbons one and four are also bonded to two hydrogens with a single bond while carbons two and three are each bonded to one hydrogen each by a single bond.

    Butadiene, C4H6, is used to make synthetic rubber. Identify the number of σ and π bonds contained in this molecule.

    Solution

    There are six σ C–H bonds and one σ C–C bond, for a total of seven from the single bonds. There are two double bonds that each have a π bond in addition to the σ bond. This gives a total nine σ and two π bonds overall.

    Check Your Learning

    Identify each illustration as depicting a σ or π bond:

    (a) side-by-side overlap of a 4p and a 2p orbital

    (b) end-to-end overlap of a 4p and 4p orbital

    (c) end-to-end overlap of a 4p and a 2p orbital

    Three diagrams are shown and labeled “a,” “b,” and “c.” Diagram a depicts two peanut-shaped orbitals lying vertically side-by-side and overlapping. One orbital is smaller than the other. Diagram b shows two peanut-shaped orbitals lying end-to-end and overlapping. Diagram c shows two unequally sized peanut-shaped orbitals lying end-to-end and overlapping.

    (a) is a π bond with a node along the axis connecting the nuclei while (b) and (c) are σ bonds that overlap along the axis.

    Dipole Moments and Ionic Character

    Now that we have seen the importance of understanding the connection between the location of electrons in atoms and the properties of elements, we can expand our understanding of the connection between atoms. This will be an introduction to more advanced aspects of the chemical bond, which is the very heart of chemistry itself. With the sole exception of the noble gases, atoms by themselves do not possess the most stable possible electron configuration. That is where the concept of chemical bonding comes into its own: atoms can attain a stable configuration by exchanging electrons with another atom, resulting in the formation of ions.

    Ions, in turn, can associate by charge – simple Coulombic attraction – resulting in the formation of compounds we call ionic compounds. We will look at the ionic nature of bonds first, from a simple positive-negative attraction standpoint. Just as important is that some atoms bond by sharing rather than exchanging electrons; the sharing of electrons gives rise to the covalent bond. To add just one more dimension, some chemical species are neither completely ionic nor completely covalent; these species possess a permanent dipole, and are classified as polar.

    In your introductory physics course, you will likely discuss the concept of Coulombic interactions in much more rigorous detail than we will do here. We are interested primarily in the differences in properties between species that arise from their relative covalent, ionic, or polar nature – not in a rigorous model of those properties. We are concerned with the connection between potential energy and force and the relative separation (or lack of separation) between charges. We begin by defining the electric or Coulomb force as the product of the charges divided by the square of the distance between those charges:

    F=Q1Q2d2F=Q1Q2d2

    Here, Q is taken to be the fundamental constant of electron charge: one electron has a charge of 1.60218×10−19C1.60218×10−19C. (We will work exclusively in the SI system, so distances will be measured in meters (m)).

    And as you may recall, energy is force times distance, so

    E=Q1Q2dE=Q1Q2d

    To illustrate the trend in attractive force, we will consider first the attractive force between two ions of single charge separated by a distance of 2d:

    F=(1)(−1)(2d)2=14d2F=(1)(−1)(2d)2=14d2

    And then the attractive force between two ions of double charge separated by a distance d:

    F=(2)(−2)(d)2=4d2F=(2)(−2)(d)2=4d2

    The force of attraction increases with the charge and decreases with increased distance. If all matter were composed of ions that would be the end of the story, but it clearly is not. There are molecules for which the charge – either positive or negative – is permanently concentrated more on one atom than the other. Notice we say atom, because these compounds are not composed of ions but rather of atoms sharing electrons through covalent bonds.

    Bond Dipole Moments

    The concept of a bond dipole moment allows us to examine the partial separation of charge between atoms. It is a simple model when applied to diatomic molecules, which will be more than sufficient for our purposes. The dipole moment of a bond is defined as the charge times the distance – charge once again being measured in multiples of the charge on an electron, or coulombs. The distance will always be in meters. Because we are considering very small charges and distances, and because it is the relative separation of charge rather than the actual value for it that we are interested in, we will introduce a new unit called the Debye, named after the physical chemist Peter Debye:

    1Debye(D)=3.336×10−30C-mμ=Q×d1Debye(D)=3.336×10−30C-mμ=Q×d

    The usefulness of the Debye unit will be shown by example:
    For HCl, the bond dipole moment is known to be 1.08 D
    For HI, the bond dipole moment is known to be 0.44 D

    Comparing the two, we can see that HI is less polar than HCl, which is what we would expect based on electronegativity values.

    We have now made a transition between the concept of an ionic compound and a partially ionic one. Of course, the partially ionic compound must also by definition be partially covalent.

    Partial Ionic Character

    The concept of the bond dipole moment helps bridge the concepts of ionic and covalent bonding. Because there is a separation of charge that is less complete than it is in an ionic bond, we can refer to polar bonds as being partially ionic in nature. In contrast to sodium chloride, hydrogen chloride shows partial charges (indicated with a delta notation) on the hydrogen and chlorine. As you would expect from the electronegativity values, hydrogen carries a partial positive charge, while chlorine carries a partial negative charge. Where do these charges come from?

    It is easy to come up with the partial charges by comparing the actual dipole moments (which can be obtained experimentally, using spectroscopy) with the dipole expected in the limiting case (that is, if we were to consider the molecule ionic). The actual dipole moment is 1.03 D.

    Example 21.2

    Finding the Partial Ionic Character

    What are the partial charges of an HCl molecule, whose bond length is 0.127 nm?

    Solution

    The bond dipole moment is (1.60218×10–19C)(0.127×10−9m)(1.60218×10–19C)(0.127×10−9m) or 2.03×10−29C-m2.03×10−29C-m. Converted to D, this is (2.03×10−29C-m)(1Debye3.336×10−30C-m)(2.03×10−29C-m)(1Debye3.336×10−30C-m) or 6.09 D. Were HCl completely ionic, this would be its molecular dipole moment. To get the partial ionic character, we divide the experimentally measured bond moment by this limiting value: %ionic character=µexpµlim×100%=(1.03D(6.09D)×100%=17%%ionic character=µexpµlim×100%=(1.03D(6.09D)×100%=17%. This means the bond is about 17% ionic – or, put another way, the positive charge in H is +0.17 and the partial negative charge on chlorine, –0.17.

    Check Your Learning

    Repeat the calculation for HI, which has a dipole moment of 0.42 D and a bond length of 0.161 nm.
    Answer: Calculated 7.73, percent 5.43

    What does the result suggest about the relative polarity of the HI bond vs. that of the HCl bond? Does the calculated dipole and percent ionic character reconcile with the difference in electronegativity between Cl and I?

    The electron configuration of an atom or ion is key to understanding the chemical behavior of an element. The atoms that make up the element combine in various ways, ranging from the mostly ionic (NaCl) to the partially ionic (HCl) to what we will call purely covalent. At the most fundamental level, all chemical bonds involve electrons, and a significant percentage of chemical and physical properties can be explained by considering the location and separation of charge in a species. By understanding the structure of matter at the atomic level, we can begin to build an understanding of the behavior of matter at both the microscopic and macroscopic levels.

    An understanding of dipoles and partial ionic character is fundamental to understanding the interactions between particles, which we will examine in the chapter on liquids and solids. These intermolecular forces become important in the liquid and solid states of matter.

    Link to Supplemental Exercises

    Supplemental exercises are available if you would like more practice with these concepts.

    21.2 Hybrid Atomic Orbitals

    Learning Objectives

    By the end of this section, you will be able to:

    • Explain the concept of atomic orbital hybridization
    • Determine the hybrid orbitals associated with various molecular geometries

    Thinking in terms of overlapping atomic orbitals is one way for us to explain how chemical bonds form in diatomic molecules. However, to understand how molecules with more than two atoms form stable bonds, we require a more detailed model. As an example, let us consider the water molecule, in which we have one oxygen atom bonding to two hydrogen atoms. Oxygen has the electron configuration 1s22s22p4, with two unpaired electrons (one in each of the two 2p orbitals). Valence bond theory would predict that the two O–H bonds form from the overlap of these two 2p orbitals with the 1s orbitals of the hydrogen atoms. If this were the case, the bond angle would be 90°, as shown in Figure 21.5, because p orbitals are perpendicular to each other. Experimental evidence shows that the bond angle is 104.5°, not 90°. The prediction of the valence bond theory model does not match the real-world observations of a water molecule; a different model is needed.

    Figure 21.5

    The hypothetical overlap of two of the 2p orbitals on an oxygen atom (red) with the 1s orbitals of two hydrogen atoms (blue) would produce a bond angle of 90°. This is not consistent with experimental evidence.1

    Two peanut-shaped orbitals lie perpendicular to one another. They overlap with spherical orbitals to the left and top of the diagram.

    Quantum-mechanical calculations suggest why the observed bond angles in H2O differ from those predicted by the overlap of the 1s orbital of the hydrogen atoms with the 2p orbitals of the oxygen atom. The mathematical expression known as the wave function, ψ, contains information about each orbital and the wavelike properties of electrons in an isolated atom. When atoms are bound together in a molecule, the wave functions combine to produce new mathematical descriptions that have different shapes. This process of combining the wave functions for atomic orbitals is called hybridization and is mathematically accomplished by the linear combination of atomic orbitals, LCAO, (a technique that we will encounter again later). The new orbitals that result are called hybrid orbitals. The valence orbitals in an isolated oxygen atom are a 2s orbital and three 2p orbitals. The valence orbitals in an oxygen atom in a water molecule differ; they consist of four equivalent hybrid orbitals that point approximately toward the corners of a tetrahedron (Figure 21.6). Consequently, the overlap of the O and H orbitals should result in a tetrahedral bond angle (109.5°). The observed angle of 104.5° is experimental evidence for which quantum-mechanical calculations give a useful explanation: Valence bond theory must include a hybridization component to give accurate predictions.

    Figure 21.6

    (a) A water molecule has four regions of electron density, so VSEPR theory predicts a tetrahedral arrangement of hybrid orbitals. (b) Two of the hybrid orbitals on oxygen contain lone pairs, and the other two overlap with the 1s orbitals of hydrogen atoms to form the O–H bonds in H2O. This description is more consistent with the experimental structure.

    Two diagrams are shown and labeled “a” and “b.” Diagram a shows two peanut-shaped orbitals lying in a tetrahedral arrangement around the letter “O.” Diagram b shows the same two orbitals, but they now overlap to the top and to the left with two spherical orbitals, each labeled “H.” A pair of electrons occupies each lobe of the peanut-shaped orbitals.

    The following ideas are important in understanding hybridization:

    1. Hybrid orbitals do not exist in isolated atoms. They are formed only in covalently bonded atoms.
    2. Hybrid orbitals have shapes and orientations that are very different from those of the atomic orbitals in isolated atoms.
    3. A set of hybrid orbitals is generated by combining atomic orbitals. The number of hybrid orbitals in a set is equal to the number of atomic orbitals that were combined to produce the set.
    4. All orbitals in a set of hybrid orbitals are equivalent in shape and energy.
    5. The type of hybrid orbitals formed in a bonded atom depends on its electron-pair geometry as predicted by the VSEPR theory.
    6. Hybrid orbitals overlap to form σ bonds. Unhybridized orbitals overlap to form π bonds.

    In the following sections, we shall discuss the common types of hybrid orbitals.

    sp Hybridization

    The beryllium atom in a gaseous BeCl2 molecule is an example of a central atom with no lone pairs of electrons in a linear arrangement of three atoms. There are two regions of valence electron density in the BeCl2 molecule that correspond to the two covalent Be–Cl bonds. To accommodate these two electron domains, two of the Be atom’s four valence orbitals will mix to yield two hybrid orbitals. This hybridization process involves mixing of the valence s orbital with one of the valence p orbitals to yield two equivalent sp hybrid orbitals that are oriented in a linear geometry (Figure 21.7). In this figure, the set of sp orbitals appears similar in shape to the original p orbital, but there is an important difference. The number of atomic orbitals combined always equals the number of hybrid orbitals formed. The p orbital is one orbital that can hold up to two electrons. The sp set is two equivalent orbitals that point 180° from each other. The two electrons that were originally in the s orbital are now distributed to the two sp orbitals, which are half filled. In gaseous BeCl2, these half-filled hybrid orbitals will overlap with orbitals from the chlorine atoms to form two identical σ bonds.

    Figure 21.7

    Hybridization of an s orbital (blue) and a p orbital (red) of the same atom produces two sp hybrid orbitals (yellow). Each hybrid orbital is oriented primarily in just one direction. Note that each sp orbital contains one lobe that is significantly larger than the other. The set of two sp orbitals are oriented at 180°, which is consistent with the geometry for two domains.

    A series of three diagrams connected by a right-facing arrow that is labeled, “Hybridization,” and a downward-facing arrow labeled, “Gives a linear arrangement,” are shown. The first diagram shows a blue spherical orbital and a red, peanut-shaped orbital, each placed on an X, Y, Z axis system. The second diagram shows the same two orbitals, but they are now purple and have one enlarged lobe and one smaller lobe. Each lies along the x-axis in the drawing. The third diagram shows the same two orbitals, but their smaller lobes now overlap along the x-axis while their larger lobes are located at and labeled as “180 degrees” from one another.

    We illustrate the electronic differences in an isolated Be atom and in the bonded Be atom in the orbital energy-level diagram in Figure 21.8. These diagrams represent each orbital by a horizontal line (indicating its energy) and each electron by an arrow. Energy increases toward the top of the diagram. We use one upward arrow to indicate one electron in an orbital and two arrows (up and down) to indicate two electrons of opposite spin.

    Figure 21.8

    This orbital energy-level diagram shows the sp hybridized orbitals on Be in the linear BeCl2 molecule. Each of the two sp hybrid orbitals holds one electron and is thus half filled and available for bonding via overlap with a Cl 3p orbital.

    A diagram is shown in two parts, connected by a right facing arrow labeled, “Hybridization.” The left diagram shows an up-facing arrow labeled, “E.” To the lower right of the arrow is a short, horizontal line labeled, “2 s,” that has two vertical half-arrows facing up and down on it. To the upper right of the arrow are a series of three short, horizontal lines labeled, “2 p.” Above these two sets of lines is the phrase, “Orbitals in an isolated B e atom.” The right side of the diagram shows two short, horizontal lines placed halfway up the space and each labeled, “s p.” An upward-facing half arrow is drawn vertically on each line. Above these lines are two other short, horizontal lines, each labeled, “2 p.” Above these two sets of lines is the phrase, “Orbitals in the s p hybridized B e in B e C l subscript 2.”

    When atomic orbitals hybridize, the valence electrons occupy the newly created orbitals. The Be atom had two valence electrons, so each of the sp orbitals gets one of these electrons. Each of these electrons pairs up with the unpaired electron on a chlorine atom when a hybrid orbital and a chlorine orbital overlap during the formation of the Be–Cl bonds.

    Any central atom surrounded by just two regions of valence electron density in a molecule will exhibit sp hybridization. Other examples include the mercury atom in the linear HgCl2 molecule, the zinc atom in Zn(CH3)2, which contains a linear C–Zn–C arrangement, and the carbon atoms in HCCH and CO2.

    sp2 Hybridization

    The valence orbitals of a central atom surrounded by three regions of electron density consist of a set of three sp2 hybrid orbitals and one unhybridized p orbital. This arrangement results from sp2 hybridization, the mixing of one s orbital and two p orbitals to produce three identical hybrid orbitals oriented in a trigonal planar geometry (Figure 21.9).

    Figure 21.9

    The hybridization of an s orbital (blue) and two p orbitals (red) produces three equivalent sp2 hybridized orbitals (yellow) oriented at 120° with respect to each other. The remaining unhybridized p orbital is not shown here, but is located along the z axis.

    This shows a series of three diagrams with one on the left connected to one on the right by a right-facing arrow that is labeled, “Hybridization.” Below the one on the right is a downward-facing arrow labeled, “Gives a trigonal planar arrangement,” connecting to the last diagram. The first diagram shows a blue spherical orbital labeled “S” and then two red and blue, peanut-shaped orbitals, each placed on an X, Y, Z axis system, labeled “P subscript x” and “P subscript y.” The two red and blue orbitals are located on the x and z axes, respectively. The second diagram shows the three orbitals again on an X, Y, Z axis system, but they are yellow and have one enlarged lobe and one smaller lobe. Each lies in a different axis in the drawing. The third diagram shows the same three orbitals, but their smaller lobes now overlap while their larger lobes are located at and labeled as “120 degrees” from one another.

    Although quantum mechanics yields the “plump” orbital lobes as depicted in Figure 21.9, sometimes for clarity these orbitals are drawn thinner and without the minor lobes, as in Figure 21.10, to avoid obscuring other features of a given illustration. We will use these “thinner” representations whenever the true view is too crowded to easily visualize.

    Figure 21.10

    This alternate way of drawing the trigonal planar sp2 hybrid orbitals is sometimes used in more crowded figures.

    Three balloon-like orbitals are shown, and connect together near their narrower ends in one plane. The angle between a pair of lobes is labeled, “120 degrees.”

    The observed structure of the borane molecule, BH3, suggests sp2 hybridization for boron in this compound. The molecule is trigonal planar, and the boron atom is involved in three bonds to hydrogen atoms (Figure 21.11). We can illustrate the comparison of orbitals and electron distribution in an isolated boron atom and in the bonded atom in BH3 as shown in the orbital energy level diagram in Figure 21.12. We redistribute the three valence electrons of the boron atom in the three sp2 hybrid orbitals, and each boron electron pairs with a hydrogen electron when B–H bonds form.

    Figure 21.11

    BH3 is an electron-deficient molecule with a trigonal planar structure.

    A boron atom is shown connected to three hydrogen atoms, which are arranged around it like a pyramid. The angle from one line connecting the boron atom to a hydrogen atom to another line connecting the boron atom to a hydrogen atom is labeled, “120 degrees.”

    Figure 12.12

    In an isolated B atom, there are one 2s and three 2p valence orbitals. When boron is in a molecule with three regions of electron density, three of the orbitals hybridize and create a set of three sp2 orbitals and one unhybridized 2p orbital. The three half-filled hybrid orbitals each overlap with an orbital from a hydrogen atom to form three σ bonds in BH3.

    A diagram is shown in two parts, connected by a right facing arrow labeled, “Hybridization.” The left diagram shows an up-facing arrow labeled “E.” To the lower right of the arrow is a short, horizontal line labeled, “2 s,” that has two vertical half-arrows facing up and down on it. To the upper right of the arrow are a series of three short, horizontal lines labeled, “2 p.” Above both sets of these lines is the phrase, “Orbitals in an isolated B atom.” One of the lines has a vertical, up-facing arrow drawn on it. The right side of the diagram shows three short, horizontal lines placed halfway up the space and each labeled, “s p superscript 2.” An upward-facing half arrow is drawn vertically on each line. Above these lines is one other short, horizontal line, labeled, “2 p.” Above both sets of lines is the phrase, “Orbitals in the s p superscript 2 hybridized B atom in B H subscript 3.”

    Any central atom surrounded by three regions of electron density will exhibit sp2 hybridization. This includes molecules with a lone pair on the central atom, such as ClNO (Figure 21.13), or molecules with two single bonds and a double bond connected to the central atom, as in formaldehyde, CH2O, and ethene, H2CCH2.

    Figure 21.13

    The central atom(s) in each of the structures shown contain three regions of electron density and are sp2 hybridized. As we know from the discussion of VSEPR theory, a region of electron density contains all of the electrons that point in one direction. A lone pair, an unpaired electron, a single bond, or a multiple bond would each count as one region of electron density.

    Three Lewis structures are shown. The left-hand structure shows a chlorine atom surrounded by three lone pairs of electrons single bonded to a nitrogen atom with one lone pair of electrons and double bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons. The middle structure shows a carbon atom single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and double bonded to an oxygen atom that has two lone pairs of electrons. The right-hand structure shows two carbon atoms, double bonded to one another and each single bonded to two hydrogen atoms.

    sp3 Hybridization

    The valence orbitals of an atom surrounded by a tetrahedral arrangement of bonding pairs and lone pairs consist of a set of four sp3 hybrid orbitals. The hybrids result from the mixing of one s orbital and all three p orbitals that produces four identical sp3 hybrid orbitals (Figure 21.14). Each of these hybrid orbitals points toward a different corner of a tetrahedron.

    Figure 21.14

    The hybridization of an s orbital (blue) and three p orbitals (red) produces four equivalent sp3 hybridized orbitals (yellow) oriented at 109.5° with respect to each other.

    A series of three diagrams connected by a right-facing arrow that is labeled, “Hybridization,” and a downward-facing arrow labeled, “Gives a tetrahedral arrangement,” are shown. The first diagram shows a blue spherical orbital and three red, peanut-shaped orbitals, each placed on an x, y, z axis system. The three red orbitals are located on the x , y and z axes, respectively. The second diagram shows the same four orbitals, but they are now purple and have one enlarged lobe and one smaller lobe. Each lies in a different axis in the drawing. The third diagram shows the same four orbitals, but their smaller lobes now overlap to form a tetrahedral structure.

    A molecule of methane, CH4, consists of a carbon atom surrounded by four hydrogen atoms at the corners of a tetrahedron. The carbon atom in methane exhibits sp3 hybridization. We illustrate the orbitals and electron distribution in an isolated carbon atom and in the bonded atom in CH4 in Figure 21.15. The four valence electrons of the carbon atom are distributed equally in the hybrid orbitals, and each carbon electron pairs with a hydrogen electron when the C–H bonds form.

    Figure 21.15

    The four valence atomic orbitals from an isolated carbon atom all hybridize when the carbon bonds in a molecule like CH4 with four regions of electron density. This creates four equivalent sp3 hybridized orbitals. Overlap of each of the hybrid orbitals with a hydrogen orbital creates a C–H σ bond.

    A diagram is shown in two parts, connected by a right facing arrow labeled, “Hybridization.” The left diagram shows an up-facing arrow labeled “E.” To the lower right of the arrow is a short, horizontal line labeled, “2 s,” that has two vertical half-arrows facing up and down on it. To the upper right of the arrow are a series of three short, horizontal lines labeled, “2 p.” Two of the lines have a vertical, up-facing arrow drawn on them. Above both sets of lines is the phrase, “Orbitals in an isolated C atom.” The right side of the diagram shows four short, horizontal lines placed halfway up the space and each labeled, “s p superscript 3.” An upward-facing half arrow is drawn vertically on each line. Above these lines is the phrase, “Orbitals in the s p superscript 3 hybridized C atom in C H subscript 4.”

    In a methane molecule, the 1s orbital of each of the four hydrogen atoms overlaps with one of the four sp3 orbitals of the carbon atom to form a sigma (σ) bond. This results in the formation of four strong, equivalent covalent bonds between the carbon atom and each of the hydrogen atoms to produce the methane molecule, CH4.

    The structure of ethane, C2H6, is similar to that of methane in that each carbon in ethane has four neighboring atoms arranged at the corners of a tetrahedron—three hydrogen atoms and one carbon atom (Figure 21.16). However, in ethane an sp3 orbital of one carbon atom overlaps end to end with an sp3 orbital of a second carbon atom to form a σ bond between the two carbon atoms. Each of the remaining sp3 hybrid orbitals overlaps with an s orbital of a hydrogen atom to form carbon–hydrogen σ bonds. The structure and overall outline of the bonding orbitals of ethane are shown in Figure 21.16. The orientation of the two CH3 groups is not fixed relative to each other. Experimental evidence shows that rotation around σ bonds occurs easily.

    Figure 21.16

    (a) In the ethane molecule, C2H6, each carbon has four sp3 orbitals. (b) These four orbitals overlap to form seven σ bonds.

    Two diagrams are shown and labeled “a” and “b.” Diagram a shows two carbon atoms, each surrounded by their four s p subscript three hybridized orbitals in a three dimensional arrangement. Each of the orbitals is shown overlapping with a spherical hydrogen atom. Diagram b shows the same general arrangement, but the hydrogen atoms are just represented by an, “H” and their spherical orbitals are not shown.

    An sp3 hybrid orbital can also hold a lone pair of electrons. For example, the nitrogen atom in ammonia is surrounded by three bonding pairs and a lone pair of electrons directed to the four corners of a tetrahedron. The nitrogen atom is sp3 hybridized with one hybrid orbital occupied by the lone pair.

    The molecular structure of water is consistent with a tetrahedral arrangement of two lone pairs and two bonding pairs of electrons. Thus we say that the oxygen atom is sp3 hybridized, with two of the hybrid orbitals occupied by lone pairs and two by bonding pairs. Since lone pairs occupy more space than bonding pairs, structures that contain lone pairs have bond angles slightly distorted from the ideal. Perfect tetrahedra have angles of 109.5°, but the observed angles in ammonia (107.3°) and water (104.5°) are slightly smaller. Other examples of sp3 hybridization include CCl4, PCl3, and NCl3.

    sp3d and sp3d2 Hybridization

    To describe the five bonding orbitals in a trigonal bipyramidal arrangement, we must use five of the valence shell atomic orbitals (the s orbital, the three p orbitals, and one of the d orbitals), which gives five sp3d hybrid orbitals. With an octahedral arrangement of six hybrid orbitals, we must use six valence shell atomic orbitals (the s orbital, the three p orbitals, and two of the d orbitals in its valence shell), which gives six sp3d2 hybrid orbitals. These hybridizations are only possible for atoms that have d orbitals in their valence subshells (that is, not those in the first or second period).

    In a molecule of phosphorus pentachloride, PCl5, there are five P–Cl bonds (thus five pairs of valence electrons around the phosphorus atom) directed toward the corners of a trigonal bipyramid. We use the 3s orbital, the three 3p orbitals, and one of the 3d orbitals to form the set of five sp3d hybrid orbitals (Figure 21.18) that are involved in the P–Cl bonds. Other atoms that exhibit sp3d hybridization include the sulfur atom in SF4 and the chlorine atoms in ClF3 and in ClF4+.ClF4+. (The electrons on fluorine atoms are omitted for clarity.)

    Figure 21.17

    The three compounds pictured exhibit sp3d hybridization in the central atom and a trigonal bipyramid form. SF4 and ClF4+ClF4+ have one lone pair of electrons on the central atom, and ClF3 has two lone pairs giving it the T-shape shown.

    Three Lewis structures are shown along with designations of molecular shape. The left image shows a sulfur atom singly bonded to four fluorine atoms. The sulfur atom has one lone pair of electrons while each fluorine has three. Two fluorine atoms are drawn vertically up and down from the sulfur while the other two are shown going into and out of the page. The second structure shows one chlorine atom singly bonded to three fluorine atoms. The chlorine has two lone pairs of electrons while each fluorine has three. Two fluorine atoms are drawn vertically up and down from the sulfur while the other is shown horizontally. The right structure shows a chlorine atom singly bonded to four fluorine atoms. The chlorine atom has one lone pair of electrons and a superscript plus sign, while each fluorine has three lone pairs of electrons. Two fluorine atoms are drawn vertically up and down from the sulfur while the other two are shown going into and out of the page.

    Figure 21.18

    (a) The five regions of electron density around phosphorus in PCl5 require five hybrid sp3d orbitals. (b) These orbitals combine to form a trigonal bipyramidal structure with each large lobe of the hybrid orbital pointing at a vertex. As before, there are also small lobes pointing in the opposite direction for each orbital (not shown for clarity).

    Two images are shown and labeled “a” and “b.” Image a depicts a ball-and-stick model in a trigonal bipyramidal arrangement. Image b depicts the hybrid orbitals in the same arrangement and each is labeled, “s p superscript three d.”

    The sulfur atom in sulfur hexafluoride, SF6, exhibits sp3d2 hybridization. A molecule of sulfur hexafluoride has six bonding pairs of electrons connecting six fluorine atoms to a single sulfur atom. There are no lone pairs of electrons on the central atom. To bond six fluorine atoms, the 3s orbital, the three 3p orbitals, and two of the 3d orbitals form six equivalent sp3d2 hybrid orbitals, each directed toward a different corner of an octahedron. Other atoms that exhibit sp3d2 hybridization include the phosphorus atom in PCl6,PCl6, the iodine atom in the interhalogens IF6+,IF6+, IF5, ICl4,ICl4, IF4IF4 and the xenon atom in XeF4.

    Figure 21.19

    (a) Sulfur hexafluoride, SF6, has an octahedral structure that requires sp3d2 hybridization. (b) The six sp3d2 orbitals form an octahedral structure around sulfur. Again, the minor lobe of each orbital is not shown for clarity.

    Two images are shown and labeled “a” and “b.” Image a depicts a ball-and-stick model in an octahedral arrangement. Image b depicts the hybrid orbitals in the same arrangement and each is labeled, “s p superscript three d superscript two.”

    Assignment of Hybrid Orbitals to Central Atoms

    The hybridization of an atom is determined based on the number of regions of electron density that surround it. The geometrical arrangements characteristic of the various sets of hybrid orbitals are shown in Figure 21.20. These arrangements are identical to those of the electron-pair geometries predicted by VSEPR theory. VSEPR theory predicts the shapes of molecules, and hybrid orbital theory provides an explanation for how those shapes are formed. To find the hybridization of a central atom, we can use the following guidelines:

    1. Determine the Lewis structure of the molecule.
    2. Determine the number of regions of electron density around an atom using VSEPR theory, in which single bonds, multiple bonds, radicals, and lone pairs each count as one region.
    3. Assign the set of hybridized orbitals from Figure 21.20 that corresponds to this geometry.

    Figure 21.20

    The shapes of hybridized orbital sets are consistent with the electron-pair geometries. For example, an atom surrounded by three regions of electron density is sp2 hybridized, and the three sp2 orbitals are arranged in a trigonal planar fashion.

    A table is shown that is composed of five columns and six rows. The header row contains the phrases, “Regions of electron density,” “Arrangement,” (which has two columns below it), and “Hybridization,” (which has two columns below it). The first column contains the numbers “2,” “3,” “4,” “5,” and “6.” The second column contains images of a line, a triangle, a three sided pyramid, a trigonal bipyramid, and an eight-faced ocatahedron. The third column contains the terms, “Linear,” “Trigonal planar,” “Tetrahedral,” “Trigonal bipyramidal,” and “Octahedral.” The fourth column contains the terms “s p,” “s p superscript 2,” “s p superscript 3,” “s p superscript 3 d,” and “s p superscript 3 d superscript 2.” The last column contains drawings of the molecules beginning with a peanut-shaped structure marked with an angle of “180 degrees.” The second structure is made up of three equal-sized, rounded structures connected at one point with an angle of “120 degrees,” while the third structure is a three-dimensional arrangement of four equal-sized, rounded structures labeled as “109.5 degrees.” The fourth structure is made up of five equal-sized, rounded structures connected at “120 and 90 degrees,” while the fifth structure has six equal-sized, rounded structures connected at “90 degrees.”

    It is important to remember that hybridization was devised to rationalize experimentally observed molecular geometries. The model works well for molecules containing small central atoms, in which the valence electron pairs are close together in space. However, for larger central atoms, the valence-shell electron pairs are farther from the nucleus, and there are fewer repulsions. Their compounds exhibit structures that are often not consistent with VSEPR theory, and hybridized orbitals are not necessary to explain the observed data. For example, we have discussed the H–O–H bond angle in H2O, 104.5°, which is more consistent with sp3 hybrid orbitals (109.5°) on the central atom than with 2p orbitals (90°). Sulfur is in the same group as oxygen, and H2S has a similar Lewis structure. However, it has a much smaller bond angle (92.1°), which indicates much less hybridization on sulfur than oxygen. Continuing down the group, tellurium is even larger than sulfur, and for H2Te, the observed bond angle (90°) is consistent with overlap of the 5p orbitals, without invoking hybridization. We invoke hybridization where it is necessary to explain the observed structures.

    Three Lewis structures are shown. The left structure shows an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons single bonded to two hydrogen atoms. The middle structure is made up of a sulfur atom with two lone pairs of electrons single bonded to two hydrogen atoms. The right structure is made up of a tellurium atom with two lone pairs of electrons single bonded to two hydrogen atoms. From left to right, the bond angles of each molecule decrease.

    Example 21.3

    Assigning Hybridization

    Ammonium sulfate is important as a fertilizer. What is the hybridization of the sulfur atom in the sulfate ion, SO42−?SO42−?

    Solution

    The Lewis structure of sulfate shows there are four regions of electron density. The hybridization is sp3.A structure is shown in which a sulfur atom is bonded to four oxygen atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement. Two of the oxygen atoms have a negative charge.

    Check Your Learning

    What is the hybridization of the selenium atom in SeF4?A Lewis structure is shown in which four fluorine atoms are each attached to one sulfur atom. Two of the attached fluorine atoms are vertically attached up and down, while two are attached into and out of the page to the right. The sulfur also has one lone pair of electrons attached to the left of the structure.

    The selenium atom is sp3d hybridized.

    Example 21.4

    Assigning Hybridization

    Urea, NH2C(O)NH2, is sometimes used as a source of nitrogen in fertilizers. What is the hybridization of the carbon atom in urea?

    Solution

    The Lewis structure of urea isA Lewis structure is shown in which a carbon atom is double bonded to an oxygen atom that has two lone pairs of electrons. The carbon atom forms single bonds to two nitrogen atoms. Each nitrogen is single bonded to two hydrogen atoms, and each nitrogen atoms has one lone pair of electrons.

    The carbon atom is surrounded by three regions of electron density, positioned in a trigonal planar arrangement. The hybridization in a trigonal planar electron pair geometry is sp2 (Figure 21.20), which is the hybridization of the carbon atom in urea.

    Check Your Learning

    Acetic acid, H3CC(O)OH, is the molecule that gives vinegar its odor and sour taste. What is the hybridization of the two carbon atoms in acetic acid?A Lewis structure is shown in which a carbon atom is double bonded to an oxygen atom that has two lone pairs of electrons and single bonded to another oxygen atom that is single boned to a hydrogen atom. This second oxygen atom has two lone pairs of electrons. The carbon is also single bonded to a carbon atom that is single bonded to three hydrogen atoms.

    H3C, sp3; C(O)OH, sp2

    Link to Supplemental Exercises

    Supplemental exercises are available if you would like more practice with these concepts.

    21.3 Multiple Bonds

    Learning Objectives

    By the end of this section, you will be able to:

    • Describe multiple covalent bonding in terms of atomic orbital overlap
    • Relate the concept of resonance to π-bonding and electron delocalization

    The hybrid orbital model appears to account well for the geometry of molecules involving single covalent bonds. Is it also capable of describing molecules containing double and triple bonds? We have already discussed that multiple bonds consist of σ and π bonds. Next we can consider how we visualize these components and how they relate to hybrid orbitals. The Lewis structure of ethene, C2H4, shows us that each carbon atom is surrounded by one other carbon atom and two hydrogen atoms.

    A Lewis structure is shown in which two carbon atoms are bonded together by a double bond. Each carbon atom is bonded to two hydrogen atoms by a single bond.

    The three bonding regions form a trigonal planar electron-pair geometry. Thus we expect the σ bonds from each carbon atom are formed using a set of sp2 hybrid orbitals that result from hybridization of two of the 2p orbitals and the 2s orbital (Figure 21.21). These orbitals form the C–H single bonds and the σ bond in the C=CC=C double bond (Figure 21.22). The π bond in the C=CC=C double bond results from the overlap of the third (remaining) 2p orbital on each carbon atom that is not involved in hybridization. This unhybridized p orbital (lobes shown in red and blue in Figure 21.22) is perpendicular to the plane of the sp2 hybrid orbitals. Thus the unhybridized 2p orbitals overlap in a side-by-side fashion, above and below the internuclear axis (Figure 21.22) and form a π bond.

    Figure 21.21

    In ethene, each carbon atom is sp2 hybridized, and the sp2 orbitals and the p orbital are singly occupied. The hybrid orbitals overlap to form σ bonds, while the p orbitals on each carbon atom overlap to form a π bond.

    A diagram is shown in two parts, connected by a right facing arrow labeled, “Hybridization.” The left diagram shows an up-facing arrow labeled, “E.” To the lower right of the arrow is a short, horizontal line labeled, “2 s,” that has two vertical half-arrows facing up and down on it. To the upper right of the arrow are a series of three short, horizontal lines labeled, “2 p.” Above both sets of lines is the phrase, “Orbitals in an isolated C atom.” Two of the lines have vertical, up-facing arrows drawn on them. The right side of the diagram shows three short, horizontal lines placed halfway up the space and each labeled, “s p superscript 2.” An upward-facing half arrow is drawn vertically on each line. Above these lines is one other short, horizontal line, labeled, “p.” Above both sets of lines is the phrase, “Orbitals in the s p superscript 2 hybridized C atom in C subscript 2 H subscript 4.”

    Figure 21.22

    In the ethene molecule, C2H4, there are (a) five σ bonds. One C–C σ bond results from overlap of sp2 hybrid orbitals on the carbon atom with one sp2 hybrid orbital on the other carbon atom. Four C–H bonds result from the overlap between the C atoms' sp2 orbitals with s orbitals on the hydrogen atoms. (b) The π bond is formed by the side-by-side overlap of the two unhybridized p orbitals in the two carbon atoms. The two lobes of the π bond are above and below the plane of the σ system.

    Two diagrams are shown labeled, “a” and “b.” Diagram a shows two carbon atoms with three purple balloon-like orbitals arranged in a plane around them and two red balloon-like orbitals arranged vertically and perpendicularly to the plane. There is an overlap of two of the purple orbitals in between the two carbon atoms, and the other four purple orbitals that face the outside of the molecule are shown interacting with spherical blue orbitals from four hydrogen atoms. Diagram b depicts a similar image to diagram a, but the red, vertical orbitals are interacting above and below the plane of the molecule to form two areas labeled, “One pi bond.”

    In an ethene molecule, the four hydrogen atoms and the two carbon atoms are all in the same plane. If the two planes of sp2 hybrid orbitals tilted relative to each other, the p orbitals would not be oriented to overlap efficiently to create the π bond. The planar configuration for the ethene molecule occurs because it is the most stable bonding arrangement. This is a significant difference between σ and π bonds; rotation around single (σ) bonds occurs easily because the end-to-end orbital overlap does not depend on the relative orientation of the orbitals on each atom in the bond. In other words, rotation around the internuclear axis does not change the extent to which the σ bonding orbitals overlap because the bonding electron density is symmetric about the axis. Rotation about the internuclear axis is much more difficult for multiple bonds; however, this would drastically alter the off-axis overlap of the π bonding orbitals, essentially breaking the π bond.

    In molecules with sp hybrid orbitals, two unhybridized p orbitals remain on the atom (Figure 21.23). We find this situation in acetylene, H−C≡C−H,H−C≡C−H, which is a linear molecule. The sp hybrid orbitals of the two carbon atoms overlap end to end to form a σ bond between the carbon atoms (Figure 21.24). The remaining sp orbitals form σ bonds with hydrogen atoms. The two unhybridized p orbitals per carbon are positioned such that they overlap side by side and, hence, form two π bonds. The two carbon atoms of acetylene are thus bound together by one σ bond and two π bonds, giving a triple bond.

    Figure 21.23

    Diagram of the two linear sp hybrid orbitals of a carbon atom, which lie in a straight line, and the two unhybridized p orbitals at perpendicular angles.

    A diagram of a carbon atom with two balloon-like purple orbitals labeled, “sp” arranged in a linear fashion around it is shown. Four red balloon-like orbitals are aligned in pairs in the y and z axes around the carbon and are labeled, “unhybridized p orbital,” and, “Second unhybridized p orbital.”

    Figure 21.24

    (a) In the acetylene molecule, C2H2, there are two C–H σ bonds and a CCCC triple bond involving one C–C σ bond and two C–C π bonds. The dashed lines, each connecting two lobes, indicate the side-by-side overlap of the four unhybridized p orbitals. (b) This shows the overall outline of the bonds in C2H2. The two lobes of each of the π bonds are positioned across from each other around the line of the C–C σ bond.

    Two diagrams are shown and labeled, “a” and “b.” Diagram a shows two carbon atoms with two purple balloon-like orbitals arranged in a plane around each of them, and four red balloon-like orbitals arranged along the y and z axes perpendicular to the plane of the molecule. There is an overlap of two of the purple orbitals in between the two carbon atoms. The other two purple orbitals that face the outside of the molecule are shown interacting with spherical blue orbitals from two hydrogen atoms. Diagram b depicts a similar image to diagram a, but the red, vertical orbitals are interacting above and below and to the front and back of the plane of the molecule to form two areas labeled, “One pi bond,” and, “Second pi bond,” each respectively.

    Hybridization involves only σ bonds, lone pairs of electrons, and single unpaired electrons (radicals). Structures that account for these features describe the correct hybridization of the atoms. However, many structures also include resonance forms. Remember that resonance forms occur when various arrangements of π bonds are possible. Since the arrangement of π bonds involves only the unhybridized orbitals, resonance does not influence the assignment of hybridization.

    For example, molecule benzene has two resonance forms (Figure 21.25). We can use either of these forms to determine that each of the carbon atoms is bonded to three other atoms with no lone pairs, so the correct hybridization is sp2. The electrons in the unhybridized p orbitals form π bonds. Neither resonance structure completely describes the electrons in the π bonds. They are not located in one position or the other, but in reality are delocalized throughout the ring. Valence bond theory does not easily address delocalization. Bonding in molecules with resonance forms is better described by molecular orbital theory. (See the next module.)

    Figure 21.25

    Each carbon atom in benzene, C6H6, is sp2 hybridized, independently of which resonance form is considered. The electrons in the π bonds are not located in one set of p orbitals or the other, but rather delocalized throughout the molecule.

    A diagram is shown that is made up of two Lewis structures connected by a double ended arrow. The left image shows six carbon atoms bonded together with alternating double and single bonds to form a six-sided ring. Each carbon is also bonded to a hydrogen atom by a single bond. The right image shows the same structure, but the double and single bonds in between the carbon atoms have changed positions.

    Example 21.5

    Assignment of Hybridization Involving Resonance

    Some acid rain results from the reaction of sulfur dioxide with atmospheric water vapor, followed by the formation of sulfuric acid. Sulfur dioxide, SO2, is a major component of volcanic gases as well as a product of the combustion of sulfur-containing coal. What is the hybridization of the S atom in SO2?

    Solution

    The resonance structures of SO2 areTwo Lewis structures connected by a double-ended arrow are shown. The left structure shows a sulfur atom with one lone pair of electrons and a positive sign which is single bonded on one side to an oxygen atom with three lone pairs of electrons and a negative sign. The sulfur atom is double bonded on the other side to another oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons. The right-hand structure is the same as the left except that the position of the double bonded oxygen atom is switched. In both structures the attached oxygen atoms form an acute angle in terms of the sulfur atom.

    The sulfur atom is surrounded by two bonds and one lone pair of electrons in either resonance structure. Therefore, the electron-pair geometry is trigonal planar, and the hybridization of the sulfur atom is sp2.

    Check Your Learning

    Another acid in acid rain is nitric acid, HNO3, which is produced by the reaction of nitrogen dioxide, NO2, with atmospheric water vapor. What is the hybridization of the nitrogen atom in NO2? (Note: the lone electron on nitrogen occupies a hybridized orbital just as a lone pair would.)

    sp2

    Link to Supplemental Exercises

    Supplemental exercises are available if you would like more practice with these concepts.

    Footnote

    1. Note that orbitals may sometimes be drawn in an elongated “balloon” shape rather than in a more realistic “plump” shape in order to make the geometry easier to visualize.

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    Previous Citation(s)
    Flowers, P., Neth, E. J., Robinson, W. R., Theopold, K., & Langley, R. (2019). Chemistry in Context. In Chemistry: Atoms First 2e. OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/5-introduction

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